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Statistics chapter1
- 2. Chapter 1 The Nature of Statistics
- 3. Definition 1.1 Descriptive statistics includes the construction of graphs, charts, and tables and the calculation of various descriptive measures such as averages, measures of variation, and percentiles. The 1948 Baseball Season In 1948, the Washington Senators played 153 games, winning 56 and losing 97. They finished seventh in the American League and were led in hitting by Bud Stewart, whose batting average was .279. Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics consists of methods for organizing and summarizing information.
- 4. Definition 1.2 Political polling provides an example of inferential statistics . Interviewing everyone of voting age in the United States on their voting preferences would be expensive and unrealistic. Statisticians who want to gauge the sentiment of the entire population of U.S. voters can afford to interview only a carefully chosen group of a few thousand voters. This group is called a sample of the population . Population and Sample Population: The collection of all individuals or items under consideration in a statistical study. Sample: That part of the population from which information is obtained.
- 5. Figure 1.1
- 6. Definition 1.3 Statisticians analyze the information obtained from a sample of the voting population to make inferences (draw conclusions) about the preferences of the entire voting population . Inferential statistics provides methods for drawing such conclusions. Inferential Statistics Inferential statistics: consists of methods for drawing and measuring the reliability of conclusions about a population based on information obtained from a sample of the population.
- 7. Definition 1.4 There are two types of simple random sampling . One is simple random sampling with replacement , whereby a member of the population can be selected more than once; the other is simple random sampling without replacement , whereby a member of the population can be selected at most once. Simple Random Sampling; Simple Random Sample Simple random sampling: A sampling procedure for which each possible sample of a given size is equally likely to be the one obtained. Simple random sample: A sample obtained by simple random sampling.
- 8. Random-Number Tables Obtaining a simple random sample by picking slips of paper out of a box is usually impractical, especially when the population is large. Fortunately, we can use several practical procedures to get simple random samples. One common method involves a table of random numbers – a table of randomly chosen digits, as illustrated in Table 1.5.
- 9. Table 1.5 Random numbers
- 10. Random-Number Generators Nowadays, statisticians prefer statistical software packages or graphing calculators, rather than random-number tables, to obtain simple random samples. The built-in programs for doing so are called random-number generators. When using random-number generators, be aware of whether they provide samples with replacement or samples without replacement.
- 11. Procedure 1.1
- 12. Procedure 1.2
- 13. Procedure 1.3
- 14. Definition 1.5 Folic Acid and Birth Defects For the study, the doctors enrolled 4753 women prior to conception, and divided them randomly into two groups. One group took daily multivitamins containing 0.8 mg of folic acid, whereas the other group received only trace elements.In the language of experimental design, each woman in the folic acid study is an experimental unit, or a subject. Experimental Units; Subjects In a designed experiment, the individuals or items on which the experiment is performed are called experimental units. When the experimental units are humans, the term subject is often used in place of experimental unit.
- 15. Key Fact 1.1 Principles of Experimental Design The following principles of experimental design enable a researcher to conclude that differences in the results of an experiment not reasonably attributable to chance are likely caused by the treatments. Control: Two or more treatments should be compared. Randomization: The experimental units should be randomly divided into groups to avoid unintentional selection bias in constituting the groups. Replication: A sufficient number of experimental units should be used to ensure that randomization creates groups that resemble each other closely and to increase the chances of detecting any differences among the treatments.
- 16. Folic Acid and Birth Defects ･ Control : The doctors compared the rate of major birth defects for the women who took folic acid to that for the women who took only trace elements. ･ Randomization : The women were divided randomly into two groups to avoid unintentional selection bias. ･ Replication : A large number of women were recruited for the study to make it likely that the two groups created by randomization would be similar and also to increase the chances of detecting any effect due to the folic acid.
- 17. Folic Acid and Birth Defects One of the most common experimental situations involves a specified treatment and placebo, an inert or innocuous medical substance. Technically, both the specified treatment and placebo are treatments. The group receiving the specified treatment is called the treatment group , and the group receiving placebo is called the control group . In the folic acid study, the women who took folic acid constituted the treatment group and those who took only trace elements constituted the control group .
- 18. Example 1.12 Experimental Design Weight Gain of Golden Torch Cacti The Golden Torch Cactus (Trichocereus spachianus), a cactus native to Argentina, has excellent landscape potential. William Feldman and Frank Crosswhite, two researchers at the Boyce Thompson Southwestern Arboretum, investigated the optimal method for producing these cacti. The researchers examined, among other things, the effects of a hydrophilic polymer and irrigation regime on weight gain. Hydrophilic polymers are used as soil additives to keep moisture in the root zone. For this study, the researchers chose Broadleaf P-4 polyacrylamide, abbreviated P4. The hydrophilic polymer was either used or not used, and five irrigation regimes were employed: none, light, medium, heavy, and very heavy.
- 19. Example 1.12 Experimental Design Weight Gain of Golden Torch Cacti Identify the experimental units. response variable. factors. levels of each factor. treatments.
- 20. Example 1.12 Experimental Design Weight Gain of Golden Torch Cacti Solution The experimental units are the cacti used in the study. The response variable is weight gain. The factors are hydrophilic polymer and irrigation regime. Hydrophilic polymer has two levels: with and without. Irrigation regime has five levels: none, light, medium, heavy, and very heavy. Each treatment is a combination of a level of hydrophilic polymer and a level of irrigation regime. Table 1.8 depicts the 10 treatments for this experiment. In the table, we abbreviated “ v ery heavy ” as “ X heavy. ”
- 21. Table 1.8
- 22. Definition 1.6 Response Variable, Factors, Levels, and Treatments Response variable: The characteristic of the experimental outcome that is to be measured or observed. Factor: A variable whose effect on the response variable is of interest in the experiment. Levels: The possible values of a factor. Treatment: Each experimental condition. For one-factor experiments, the treatments are the levels of the single Factor. For multifactor experiments, each treatment is a Combination of levels of the factors.
- 23. Definition 1.7 Once we have chosen the treatments, we must decide how the experimental units are to be assigned to the treatments (or vice versa). The women in the folic acid study were randomly divided into two groups; one group received folic acid and the other only trace elements. In the cactus study, 40 cacti were divided randomly into 10 groups of four cacti each and then each group was assigned a different treatment from among the 10 depicted in Table 1.8. Both of these experiments used a completely randomized design . Completely Randomized Design In a completely randomized design, all the experimental units are assigned randomly among all the treatments.
- 24. Definition 1.8 Although the completely randomized design is commonly used and simple, it is not always the best design. Several alternatives to that design exist. For instance, in a randomized block design , experimental units that are similar in ways that are expected to affect the response variable are grouped in blocks. Then the random assignment of experimental units to the treatments is made block by block. Randomized Block Design In a randomized block design, the experimental units are assigned randomly among all the treatments separately within each block.
- 25. Example 1.13 Statistical Designs Golf Ball Driving Distances Suppose we want to compare the driving distances for five different brands of golf ball. For 40 golfers, discuss a method of comparison based on a completely randomized design. a randomized block design. Solution Here the experimental units are the golfers, the response variable is driving distance, the factor is brand of golf ball, and the levels (and treatments) are the five brands. a. For a completely randomized design, we would randomly divide the 40 golfers into five groups of 8 golfers each and then randomly assign each group to drive a different brand of ball,as illustrated in Fig.1.5.
- 26. Figure 1.5 Completely randomized design for golf ball experiment
- 27. Example 1.13 Statistical Designs Golf Ball Driving Distances b. Because driving distance is affected by gender, using a randomized block design that blocks by gender is probably a better approach. We could do so by using 20 men golfers and 20 women golfers. We would randomly divide the 20 men into five groups of 4 men each and then randomly assign each group to drive a different brand of ball, as shown in Fig.1.6. Likewise,we would randomly divide the 20 women into five groups of 4 women each and then randomly assign each group to drive a different brand of ball, as also shown in Fig.1.6.
- 28. Figure 1.6 Randomized block design for golf ball experiment
- 29. By blocking, we can isolate and remove the variation in driving distances between men and women and thereby make it easier to detect any differences in driving distances among the five brands of golf ball. Additionally, blocking permits us to analyze separately the differences in driving distances among the five brands for men and women. As illustrated in Example 1.13, blocking can isolate and remove systematic differences among blocks, thereby making any differences among treatments easier to detect. Blocking also makes possible the separate analysis of treatment effects on each block.
- 30. Chapter in Review You Should be Able to classify a statistical study as either descriptive or inferential. identify the population and the sample in an inferential study. explain the difference between an observational study and a designed experiment. classify a statistical study as either an observational study or a designed experiment. explain what is meant by a representative sample. describe simple random sampling. use a table of random numbers to obtain a simple random sample.
- 31. Chapter in Review You Should be Able to describe systematic random sampling, cluster sampling, and stratified sampling. state the three basic principles of experimental design. identify the treatment group and control group in a study. identify the experimental units, response variable, factor(s), levels of each factor, and treatments in a designed experiment. distinguish between a completely randomized design and a randomized block design.
Editor's Notes
- #6: Insert Figure 1.1 Relationship between population and sample